Stepper Motor Controller

The circuit
can also supply motor currents up to 3.5 A, which means it can be used
to drive relatively large motors. The circuit is also short-circuit
proof and has built-in over temperature protection. Two signals are
required for driving a stepper motor. In logical terms, they constitute
a Grey code, which means they are two square-wave signals with the
same frequency but a constant phase difference of 90 degrees.

IC1
generates a square-wave signal with a frequency that can be set using
potentiometer P1. This frequency determines the rpm of the stepper
motor. The Grey code is generated by a decimal counter in the form of a
4017. Outputs Q0–Q9 of the counter go high in succession in response to
the rising edges of the clock signal. The Grey code can be generated
from the outputs by using two OR gates, which are formed here using two
diodes and a resistor for each gate, to produce the I and Q signals.

Here
‘I’ stands for ‘in-phase’ and ‘Q’ for ‘quadrature’, which means it has
a 90-degree phase offset from the I signal. It is common practice to
drive the windings of a stepper motor using a pair of push-pull circuits
for each winding, which is called an ‘H bridge’. That makes it
possible to reverse the direction of the current through each winding,
which is necessary for proper operation of a bipolar motor (one whose
windings do not have centre taps).

Of course, it can also be
used to properly drive a unipolar motor (with centre-tapped windings).
Instead of using a push-pull circuit of this sort, here we decided to
use audio amplifier ICs (type TDA2030), even though that may sound a
bit strange. In functional terms, the TDA2030 is actually a sort of
power opamp. It has a difference amplifier at the input and a push-pull
driver stage at the output.

IC3,
IC4 and IC5 are all of this type (which is economically priced). Here
IC3 and IC4 are wired as comparators. Their non-inverting inputs are
driven by the previously mentioned I and Q signals, with the inverting
inputs set to a potential equal to half the supply voltage. That
potential is supplied by the third TDA2030. The outputs of IC3 and IC4
thus track their non-inverting inputs, and each of them drives one motor
winding.

The other ends of the windings are in turn connected
to half the supply voltage, provided by IC5. As one end of each winding
is connected to a square-wave signal that alternates between 0 V and a
potential close to the supply voltage, while the other end is at half
the supply voltage, a voltage equal to half the supply voltage is
always applied to each winding, but it alternates in polarity according
to the states of the I and Q signals.

That’s exactly what we
want for driving a bipolar stepper motor. The rpm can be varied using
potentiometer P1, but the actual speed is different for each type of
motor because it depends on the number of steps per revolution. The
motor used in the prototype advanced by approximately 9° per step, and
its speed could be adjusted over a range of approximately 2 to 10
seconds per revolution.

In principle, any desired speed can be
obtained by adjusting the value of C1, as long as the motor can handle
it. The adjustment range of P1 can be increased by reducing the value of
resistor R5. The adjustment range is 1:(1000 R5)/R5, where R5 is
given in k.If a stepper motor is switched off by removing the supply
voltage from the circuit, it’s possible for the motor to continue
turning a certain amount due to its own inertia or the mechanical load
on the motor (flywheel effect).

It’s also possible for the
position of the motor to disagree with the states of the I and Q signals
when power is first applied to the circuit. As a result, the motor can
sometimes ‘get confused’ when starting up, with the result that it
takes a step in the wrong direction before starting to move in
direction defined by the drive signals. These effects can be avoided by
adding the optional switch S1 and a 1-k resistor, which can then be
used to start and stop the motor. When S1 is closed, the clock signal
stops but IC2 retains its output levels at that moment, so the
continuous currents through the motor windings magnetically ‘lock’ the
rotor in position.

The TDA2030 has internal over temperature
protection, so the output current will be reduced automatically if the
IC becomes too hot. For that reason, it is recommended to fit IC3, IC4
and IC5 to a heat sink (possibly a shared heat sink) when a relatively
high-power motor is used. The tab of the TO220 case is electrically
bonded to the negative supply voltage pin, so the ICs can be attached
to a shared heat sink without using insulating washers.

Earth Fault Indicator

Actually,
since these devices are frequently in wet conditions, the screw and/or
lug used to connect the earth wire to the device frame corrodes
gradually and ends up breaking or causing a faulty contact. The remedy
is then worse than the problem because the user, thinking that he/she is
protected by earth, does not take special precautions and risks
his/her life. However, all that’s needed is an extremely simple system
to automatically detect any break in the earth connection; so simple
that we ask ourselves why it is not already included as part of all
factory production for appliances that carry any such risk, as we have
discussed above.

We propose it as a project for you to build
using this schematic. The live wire (L) of the mains power supply is
connected to diode D1 which ensures simple half-wave rectification
which is sufficient for our use. The current which is available is
limited to a very low value by resistor R2. If the appliance earth
connection to which our circuit is installed is efficient, this current
is directed to earth via resistor R1 and the rest of the circuit is
inactive due to insufficient power. If the earth connection is
disconnected, the current supplied by D1 and R2 charges up capacitor
C1.

When
the voltage at the terminals of the capacitor reaches about 60 volts,
neon indicator light La1 is turned on and emits a flashing light which
discharges capacitor C1 at the same time. This phenomenon is reproduced
indefinitely as long as the earth connection has not been restored,
and the neon light continues to flash to attract attention in case of
danger. Building the project is not particularly difficult but, since it
is a project aimed at human safety, we must take the maximum of
precautions concerning the choice of components utilised. Therefore, C1
must have an operating voltage of at least 160 volts while R2 must be a
0.5-watt resistor, not for reasons of power dissipation, but in order
to maintain the voltage.

The neon light can be any type,
possibly used, or it may be part of an indicator light to make it
easier to attach to the protected appliance. In the second case, we
must obviously get rid of its series resistor which would prevent
proper operation here. During installation of the circuit in the
appliance to be protected, we should also clearly mark Live (L) and
Neutral (N) (for example, seek Live with a simple screwdriver) because
inverting these two wires at this point will disable proper operation.
The final point, which is self-evident considering the principle used
here: the earth connection for our setup must be hooked up to the frame
of the appliance to be protected at a different point than where the
normal earth wire is connected.

Wiring Diagram Fuse Saver

The value of R6 can be altered to give a different cut-off
current, as determined by Ohm’s Law, if required. When a short circuit
occurs in the load, the voltage rises rapidly and T1 starts to conduct.
This draws in the relay, switching its contacts, which cuts off power
to the external circuit, and instead powers the relay coil directly,
latching it in this second state. The circuit remains in this state
until the primary power supply is switched off.

Capacitors C1 and
C2 hold enough charge (via D3, D4 and D6, which prevent the charge
from being lost to the rest of the circuit, whichever state it is in)
to keep T1 switched on and power the relay while it switches over, and
R2 and R4 provide slow discharge paths. LEDs D1 (red) and D5 (green)
indicate what state the circuit is in. Inductor L1 slows the inrush of
current when the circuit is switched on, which would otherwise cut off
the circuit immediately.

D2
and D7 provide the usual back-emf protection across the coils. In use,
the input of the circuit is connected to the main
transformer-rectifier-capacitor-fuse power supply via K1, and the output
is connected to the (experimental) load via K2. Note that the input
voltage must be a floating supply if Vout– is grounded via the load, as
Vin– and Vout– must not be connected together. Some consideration needs
to be given to a number of components.

First, the choice of
relay Re1. For the prototype, this was obtained from Maplin, part
number YX97F. This is has a coil resistance of 320 ?, which with R1
forms the collector load for T1. Its allowed pull-in voltage range is
nominally 9 V to 19 V, which limits the input power supply voltage to
between around 10 V to 30 V (DC only). R1 could be replaced by a wire
link for operation at input voltages below 10 V, or increased in value,
as determined by either the application of Ohm’s Law once more or
trial and error, for an input voltage above 30 V.

Coil L1 was
obtained from Farnell, part number 581-240. Finally, the protective
fuse for the input power supply should be a ‘slow-blow’ type; ‘fast’
fuses will rupture before the relay has time to switch. Also note that
this device is meant to save fuses, not replace them. A mains
transformer must always be fused if it is not designed to run safely,
i.e., without presenting a fire hazard, even if its output has a
continuous short-circuit fault.

IR Music Transmitter and Reciever

Transmitter circuit diagram:

The
output of IC1 is fed to the IR driver stage (built across the
transistors T1 and T2) to get the maximum range. Here the red LED (LED1)
flickers according to the musical tones generated by UM66 IC,
indicating modulation. IR LED2 and LED3 are infrared transmitting LEDs.
For maximum sound transmission these should be oriented towards IR
photo-transistor L14F1 (T3). The IR music receiver uses popular op-amp
IC µA741 and audio-frequency amplifier IC LM386 along with
photo-transistor L14F1 and some discrete components (second diagram).

The
melody generated by IC UM66 is transmitted through IR LEDs, received
by phototransistor ceived by phototransistor T3 and fed to pin 2 of IC
µA741 (IC2). Its gain can be varied using potmeter VR1. The output of
IC µA741 is fed to IC LM386 (IC3) via capacitor C5 and potmeter VR2.
The melody produced is heard through the receiver’s loudspeaker.
Potmeter VR2 is used to control the volume of loudspeaker LS1 (8-ohm,
1W). Switching off the power supply stops melody generation.